Shopping on line can be easy, simple and save you lots of money. It can also take a lot of your time, frustrate you, and result in unwanted purchases. Now the same can be said for regular high street shopping, but with the vast opportunity presented by the Internet it will pay you to spend a few minutes reading this and understanding how to better optimize your Computer Model shopping experience:
1. Compare - without doubt the biggest advantage that the Computer Model offers shoppers today is the ability to compare thousands of Computer Model at a time. This is a great thing, but not necessarily all the time! Too much can be daunting at times so take advantage of the great comparison sites and where possible let them do the hard work for you.
2. Research - if it has been said it will be on the internet. Ignorance is no longer a justifiable reason for buying the wrong thing. Take the time to research in detail everything that you could possible want to know about
3. Testimonials - don't know anybody that has bought a Computer Model? Wrong! If the Computer Model is good the internet will let you know. Use the Internet as a friend and get testimonials before you buy.
4. Questions - Got a question about Computer Model then search the Forums, FAQ's, Blogs etc. Don't be afraid to ask .....
5. Reputation - Never heard of the company selling Computer Model? Don't worry, no reason why you should know every company in the world, but you know someone that does! Use the internet to find out what people are saying about Computer Model and build up a picture of their reputation for sales, returns, customer service, delivery etc.
6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Computer Model wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.
7. Feedback - happy with your Computer Model then let people know, after all you are depending on others people input in your buying decision, so why not give a little back.
8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Computer Model site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site
9. Contact - got a question about Computer Model, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.
10. Payment - ready to pay for your Computer Model, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.
A
computer simulation, a
computer model or a
computational model is a computer program that attempts to simulation an abstract model (abstract) of a particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of many natural systems in physics (Computational Physics),
chemistry and
biology, human systems in economics,
psychology, and social science and in the process of engineering new
technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems. Traditionally, the formal modeling of systems has been via a mathematical model, which attempts to find
Analytic solution to problems which enables the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of parameters and initial conditions. Computer simulations build on, and are a useful adjunct to purely mathematical models in
science, technology and
entertainment.
History
Computer simulation was developed hand-in-hand with the rapid growth of the computer, following its first large-scale deployment during the Manhattan Project in World War II to model the process of
nuclear weapon. It was a simulation of 12
hard spheres using a Monte Carlo method. Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitution for, modeling systems for which simple closed-form solution are not possible. There are many different types of computer simulation; the common feature they all share is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states of the model would be prohibitive or impossible. Computer models were initially used as a supplement for other arguments, but their use later became rather widespread.
Data preparation
The data input/output for the simulation can be either through formatted textfiles or a
preprocessor (CAE).
Types of computer simulation
Computer models can be classified according to several criteria including:
- stochastic process or Deterministic algorithm (and as a special case of deterministic, chaotic) - see External links below for examples of stochastic vs. deterministic simulations
- Steady-state or dynamic
- Continuous function or discrete mathematics (and as an important special case of discrete, Discrete event simulation or DE models)
- Local or distributed computing.
For example:
- Steady-state models use equations defining the relationships between elements of the modelled system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are often used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modelling case before dynamic simulation is attempted.
- Dynamic simulations model changes in a system in response to (usually changing) input signals.
- stochastic process models use random number generators to model chance or random events; they are also called Monte Carlo method simulations.
- A discrete event simulation (DES) manages events in time. Most computer, logic-test and fault-tree simulations are of this type. In this type of simulation, the simulator maintains a queue of events sorted by the simulated time they should occur. The simulator reads the queue and triggers new events as each event is processed. It is not important to execute the simulation in real time. It's often more important to be able to access the data produced by the simulation, to discover logic defects in the design, or the sequence of events.
- A continuous dynamic simulation performs numerical solution of Differential algebraic equation or differential equations (either partial differential equation or ordinary differential equation). Periodically, the simulation program solves all the equations, and uses the numbers to change the state and output of the simulation. Applications include flight simulators, simulation games, chemical process modeling, and simulations of electrical circuits. Originally, these kinds of simulations were actually implemented on analog computers, where the differential equations could be represented directly by various electrical components such as op-amps. By the late 1980s, however, most "analog" simulations were run on conventional digital computers that emulate the behavior of an analog computer.
- A special type of discrete simulation which does not rely on a model with an underlying equation, but can nonetheless be represented formally, is agent-based simulation. In agent-based simulation, the individual entities (such as molecules, cells, trees or consumers) in the model are represented directly (rather than by their density or concentration) and possess an internal state and set of behaviors or rules which determine how the agent's state is updated from one time-step to the next.
- Distributed computing models run on a network of interconnected computers, possibly through the Internet. Simulations dispersed across multiple host computers like this are often referred to as "distributed simulations". There are several standards for distributed simulation, including Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol (ALSP), Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS), the High Level Architecture (HLA) and the Test and Training Enabling Architecture (TENA).
Computer simulation in science
Generic examples of types of computer simulations in science, which are derived from an underlying mathematical description:
- a numerical simulation of differential equations which cannot be solved analytically, theories which involve continuous systems such as phenomena in physical cosmology, fluid dynamics (e.g. climate models, roadway noise models, roadway air dispersion models), continuum mechanics and chemical kinetics fall into this category.
- a stochastic simulation, typically used for discrete systems where events occur probabilistically, and which cannot be described directly with differential equations (this is a discrete simulation in the above sense). Phenomena in this category include genetic drift, biochemistry or gene regulatory networks with small numbers of molecules. (see also: Monte Carlo method).
Specific examples of computer simulations follow:
- statistical simulations based upon an agglomeration of a large number of input profiles, such as the forecasting of equilibrium temperature of receiving waters, allowing the gamut of meteorological data to be input for a specific locale. This technique was developed for thermal pollution forecasting .
- agent based simulation has been used effectively in ecology, where it is often called individual based modeling and has been used in situations for which individual variability in the agents cannot be neglected, such as population dynamics of salmon and trout (most purely mathematical models assume all trout behave identically).
- time stepped dynamic model. In hydrology there are several such hydrology transport models such as the SWMM and DSSAM Models developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for river water quality forecasting.
- computer simulations have also been used to formally model theories of human cognition and performance, e.g. ACT-R
- Computational fluid dynamics simulations are used to simulate the behaviour of flowing air, water and other fluids. There are one-, two- and three- dimensional models used. A one dimensional model might simulate the effects of water hammer in a pipe. A two-dimensional model might be used to simulate the drag forces on the cross-section of an aeroplane wing. A three-dimensional simulation might estimate the heating and cooling requirements of a large building.
- An understanding of statistical thermodynamic molecular theory is fundamental to the appreciation of molecular solutions. Development of the Potential Distribution Theorem (PDT) allows one to simplify this complex subject to down-to-earth presentations of molecular theory.
Notable, and sometimes controversial, computer simulations used in science include: Donella Meadows' World3 used in the
Limits to Growth, James Lovelock's Daisyworld and Thomas Ray's Tierra (computer simulation).
Simulation environments for physics and engineering
Graphical environments to design simulations have been developed. Special care was taken to handle events (situations in which the simulation equations are not valid and have to be changed). The open project Open Source Physics was started to develop reusable libraries for simulations in Java, together with
Easy Java Simulations, a complete graphical environment that generates code based on these libraries.
Pitfalls in computer simulation
Although sometimes ignored in computer simulations, it is very important to perform
sensitivity analysis to ensure that the accuracy of the results are properly understood. For example, the probabilistic risk analysis of factors determining the success of an oilfield exploration program involves combining samples from a variety of statistical distributions using the
Monte Carlo method. If, for instance, one of the key parameters (i.e. the net ratio of oil-bearing strata) is known to only one significant figure, then the result of the simulation might not be more precise than one significant figure, although it might (misleadingly) be presented as having four significant figures.
Computer simulation in practical contexts
Computer simulations are used in a wide variety of practical contexts, such as:
- analysis of air pollutant dispersion using atmospheric dispersion modeling
- design of complex systems such as aircraft and also logistics systems.
- design of Noise barriers to effect roadway noise mitigation
- flight simulators to train pilots
- weather forecasting
- behavior of structures (such as buildings and industrial parts) under stress and other conditions
- design of industrial processes, such as chemical processing plants
- Strategic Management and Organizational Studies
- Instruction Set Simulators for debugging and automatic error detection
- Reservoir simulation for the petroleum engineering to model the subsurface reservoir
- Process Engineering Simulation tools.
The reliability and the trust people put in computer simulations depends on the
validity of the simulation
model (abstract), therefore verification and validation are of crucial importance in the development of computer simulations. Another important aspect of computer simulations is that of reproducibility of the results, meaning that a simulation model should not provide a different answer for each execution. Although this might seem obvious, this is a special point of attention in stochastic simulations, where random numbers should actually be semi-random numbers. An exception to reproducibility are human in the loop simulations such as flight simulations and computer games. Here a human is part of the simulation and thus influences the outcome in a way that is hard if not impossible to reproduce exactly.
Computer graphics can be used to display the results of a computer simulation. Animations can be used to experience a simulation in real-time e.g. in training simulations. In some cases animations may also be useful in faster than real-time or even slower than real-time modes. For example, faster than real-time animations can be useful in visualizing the buildup of queues in the simulation of humans evacuating a building. Furthermore, simulation results are often aggregated into static images using various ways of
scientific visualization.
In debugging, simulating a program execution under test (rather than executing natively) can detect far more errors than the hardware itself can detect and, at the same time, log useful debugging information such as instruction trace, memory alterations and instruction counts. This technique can also detect buffer overflow and similar "hard to detect" errors as well as produce performance information and
tuning data.
See also
External links
Organizations
- EUROSIM - Federation of European Simulation Societies
- Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida
- Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization
- The Society for Modeling and Simulation International (Formerly the Society of Computer Simulation)
- United States Defense Modeling and Simulation Office
- Worldwide Simulation
- The System Dynamics Society
Education
- Simulation-An Enabling Technology in Software Engineering
- Sabanci University School of Languages Podcasts: Computer Simulation by Prof. David M. Goldsman
- IMTEK Mathematica Supplement (IMS) (some Mathematica-specific tutorials here)
- The Creative Learning Exchange
Examples
- A portfolio of free public simulations from the University of Florida
- Integrated Land Use, Transportation, Environment, (ILUTE) Modeling System
- Nanorobotics Simulation - Computational Nanomechatronics Lab. at Center for Automation in Nanobiotech ( CAN)
- Online traffic simulation
- Shakemovie Caltech's Online Seismic Event Simulation
References
- R. Frigg and S. Hartmann, Models in Science. Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- S. Hartmann, The World as a Process: Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences, in: R. Hegselmann et al. (eds.), Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View, Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer 1996, 77-100.
- P. Humphreys, Extending Ourselves: Computational Science, Empiricism, and Scientific Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
A
computer simulation, a
computer model or a
computational model is a
computer program that attempts to
simulation an abstract
model (abstract) of a particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of many natural systems in
physics (Computational Physics), chemistry and
biology, human systems in economics, psychology, and
social science and in the process of engineering new
technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems. Traditionally, the formal modeling of systems has been via a
mathematical model, which attempts to find Analytic solution to problems which enables the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of parameters and initial conditions. Computer simulations build on, and are a useful adjunct to purely mathematical models in
science,
technology and
entertainment.
History
Computer simulation was developed hand-in-hand with the rapid growth of the computer, following its first large-scale deployment during the
Manhattan Project in
World War II to model the process of nuclear weapon. It was a simulation of 12 hard spheres using a
Monte Carlo method. Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitution for, modeling systems for which simple
closed-form solution are not possible. There are many different types of computer simulation; the common feature they all share is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states of the model would be prohibitive or impossible. Computer models were initially used as a supplement for other arguments, but their use later became rather widespread.
Data preparation
The data input/output for the simulation can be either through formatted
textfiles or a
preprocessor (CAE).
Types of computer simulation
Computer models can be classified according to several criteria including:
For example:
- Steady-state models use equations defining the relationships between elements of the modelled system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are often used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modelling case before dynamic simulation is attempted.
- Dynamic simulations model changes in a system in response to (usually changing) input signals.
- stochastic process models use random number generators to model chance or random events; they are also called Monte Carlo method simulations.
- A discrete event simulation (DES) manages events in time. Most computer, logic-test and fault-tree simulations are of this type. In this type of simulation, the simulator maintains a queue of events sorted by the simulated time they should occur. The simulator reads the queue and triggers new events as each event is processed. It is not important to execute the simulation in real time. It's often more important to be able to access the data produced by the simulation, to discover logic defects in the design, or the sequence of events.
- A continuous dynamic simulation performs numerical solution of Differential algebraic equation or differential equations (either partial differential equation or ordinary differential equation). Periodically, the simulation program solves all the equations, and uses the numbers to change the state and output of the simulation. Applications include flight simulators, simulation games, chemical process modeling, and simulations of electrical circuits. Originally, these kinds of simulations were actually implemented on analog computers, where the differential equations could be represented directly by various electrical components such as op-amps. By the late 1980s, however, most "analog" simulations were run on conventional digital computers that emulate the behavior of an analog computer.
- A special type of discrete simulation which does not rely on a model with an underlying equation, but can nonetheless be represented formally, is agent-based simulation. In agent-based simulation, the individual entities (such as molecules, cells, trees or consumers) in the model are represented directly (rather than by their density or concentration) and possess an internal state and set of behaviors or rules which determine how the agent's state is updated from one time-step to the next.
- Distributed computing models run on a network of interconnected computers, possibly through the Internet. Simulations dispersed across multiple host computers like this are often referred to as "distributed simulations". There are several standards for distributed simulation, including Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol (ALSP), Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS), the High Level Architecture (HLA) and the Test and Training Enabling Architecture (TENA).
Computer simulation in science
Generic examples of types of computer simulations in science, which are derived from an underlying mathematical description:
- a numerical simulation of differential equations which cannot be solved analytically, theories which involve continuous systems such as phenomena in physical cosmology, fluid dynamics (e.g. climate models, roadway noise models, roadway air dispersion models), continuum mechanics and chemical kinetics fall into this category.
- a stochastic simulation, typically used for discrete systems where events occur probabilistically, and which cannot be described directly with differential equations (this is a discrete simulation in the above sense). Phenomena in this category include genetic drift, biochemistry or gene regulatory networks with small numbers of molecules. (see also: Monte Carlo method).
Specific examples of computer simulations follow:
- statistical simulations based upon an agglomeration of a large number of input profiles, such as the forecasting of equilibrium temperature of receiving waters, allowing the gamut of meteorological data to be input for a specific locale. This technique was developed for thermal pollution forecasting .
- agent based simulation has been used effectively in ecology, where it is often called individual based modeling and has been used in situations for which individual variability in the agents cannot be neglected, such as population dynamics of salmon and trout (most purely mathematical models assume all trout behave identically).
- computer simulations have also been used to formally model theories of human cognition and performance, e.g. ACT-R
- Computational fluid dynamics simulations are used to simulate the behaviour of flowing air, water and other fluids. There are one-, two- and three- dimensional models used. A one dimensional model might simulate the effects of water hammer in a pipe. A two-dimensional model might be used to simulate the drag forces on the cross-section of an aeroplane wing. A three-dimensional simulation might estimate the heating and cooling requirements of a large building.
- An understanding of statistical thermodynamic molecular theory is fundamental to the appreciation of molecular solutions. Development of the Potential Distribution Theorem (PDT) allows one to simplify this complex subject to down-to-earth presentations of molecular theory.
Notable, and sometimes controversial, computer simulations used in science include:
Donella Meadows' World3 used in the
Limits to Growth,
James Lovelock's
Daisyworld and Thomas Ray's Tierra (computer simulation).
Simulation environments for physics and engineering
Graphical environments to design simulations have been developed. Special care was taken to handle events (situations in which the simulation equations are not valid and have to be changed). The open project Open Source Physics was started to develop reusable libraries for simulations in Java, together with Easy Java Simulations, a complete graphical environment that generates code based on these libraries.
Pitfalls in computer simulation
Although sometimes ignored in computer simulations, it is very important to perform
sensitivity analysis to ensure that the accuracy of the results are properly understood. For example, the probabilistic risk analysis of factors determining the success of an oilfield exploration program involves combining samples from a variety of statistical distributions using the
Monte Carlo method. If, for instance, one of the key parameters (i.e. the net ratio of oil-bearing strata) is known to only one significant figure, then the result of the simulation might not be more precise than one significant figure, although it might (misleadingly) be presented as having four significant figures.
Computer simulation in practical contexts
Computer simulations are used in a wide variety of practical contexts, such as:
The reliability and the trust people put in computer simulations depends on the
validity of the simulation
model (abstract), therefore
verification and
validation are of crucial importance in the development of computer simulations. Another important aspect of computer simulations is that of reproducibility of the results, meaning that a simulation model should not provide a different answer for each execution. Although this might seem obvious, this is a special point of attention in stochastic simulations, where random numbers should actually be semi-random numbers. An exception to reproducibility are human in the loop simulations such as flight simulations and computer games. Here a human is part of the simulation and thus influences the outcome in a way that is hard if not impossible to reproduce exactly.
Computer graphics can be used to display the results of a computer simulation.
Animations can be used to experience a simulation in real-time e.g. in training simulations. In some cases animations may also be useful in faster than real-time or even slower than real-time modes. For example, faster than real-time animations can be useful in visualizing the buildup of queues in the simulation of humans evacuating a building. Furthermore, simulation results are often aggregated into static images using various ways of scientific visualization.
In debugging, simulating a program execution under test (rather than executing natively) can detect far more errors than the hardware itself can detect and, at the same time, log useful debugging information such as instruction trace, memory alterations and instruction counts. This technique can also detect
buffer overflow and similar "hard to detect" errors as well as produce performance information and
tuning data.
See also
External links
Organizations
- EUROSIM - Federation of European Simulation Societies
- Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida
- Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization
- The Society for Modeling and Simulation International (Formerly the Society of Computer Simulation)
- United States Defense Modeling and Simulation Office
- Worldwide Simulation
- The System Dynamics Society
Education
- Simulation-An Enabling Technology in Software Engineering
- Sabanci University School of Languages Podcasts: Computer Simulation by Prof. David M. Goldsman
- IMTEK Mathematica Supplement (IMS) (some Mathematica-specific tutorials here)
- The Creative Learning Exchange
Examples
- A portfolio of free public simulations from the University of Florida
- Integrated Land Use, Transportation, Environment, (ILUTE) Modeling System
- Nanorobotics Simulation - Computational Nanomechatronics Lab. at Center for Automation in Nanobiotech ( CAN)
- Online traffic simulation
- Shakemovie Caltech's Online Seismic Event Simulation
References
- R. Frigg and S. Hartmann, Models in Science. Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- S. Hartmann, The World as a Process: Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences, in: R. Hegselmann et al. (eds.), Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View, Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer 1996, 77-100.
- P. Humphreys, Extending Ourselves: Computational Science, Empiricism, and Scientific Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Met Office: Types of climate models
A computer model which includes many components of the climate system in detail takes a lot of computing resources. Consequently, to produce climate projections for many centuries ...
Computer modelling
Computer modelling A theory has only the alternative of being right or wrong. A model has a third possibility; it may be right, but irrelevant.
BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Models 'key to climate forecasts'
The only way to predict the day-to-day weather and changes to the climate over longer timescales is to use computer models. These models solve complex mathematical equations that ...
Computer Models
Computer forecasting and simulation models. ... We are expert in the design, development and use of computer models for forecasting ...
Computer simulation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system.
Computer model to stimulate the random behaviour of particles in a ...
Computer model to stimulate the random behaviour of particles in a thermal-spray jet
PhD Studentship - Computer Model of Interpersonal Emotion Regulation
PhD Studentship – Developing a Computer Model of Interpersonal Emotion Regulation. University of Sheffield. Institute of Work Psychology . Ref No: 0803 Closing Date: 8 th August
Three Computer-Based models of creativity:BRUTUS, MINSTREL and MEXICA.
Three Computer-Based Models of Storytelling: BRUTUS, MINSTREL and MEXICA Three Computer-Based models of creativity:BRUTUS, MINSTREL and MEXICA.
Computer Models Help Raise the Bar for Sporting Achievement
Enhancing the design of sports equipment - EPSRC at the BA Festival of Science. ... 12 Million for Radical New Research into Future Intelligent Transport Systems
Amazon.co.uk: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming ...
Amazon.co.uk: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming: PV Van Roy: Books ... Hardcover: 930 pages; Publisher: MIT Press; New title edition (5 Mar 2004) Language ...
